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#1 The Eurasian steppe is a region of scrub and feathery grasses that stretches from the borders of China to the shore of the Black Sea. Steppe dwellers range the grasslands with their flocks, living in tents, and riding the short, hardy Turkish pony of the steppe.

#2 Islam was spread by caravan through the Middle East cities, and by the sword. It was a powerful weapon in the struggle against uncertainty and change, as it was a firm religion with clear rules.

#3 Islam’s genius for movement, however, remained ceremonial. By the caravans that traveled across the Islamic world, carrying sacks of spices and gold, many of the luxuries of the known world were handled by Muslim merchants.

#4 Osman of Bithynia was the next leader to take over after the Mongols, in the fourteenth century. He led the next advance, at the beginning of the fourteenth century. His state was minuscule, and his title of bey, or lord, the lowest, but he stood at the crumbling ledge of Byzantine power.

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